01 systems and processes 2

Brief 
This assignment provides a framework of experience for the working practices of the photography department. Student experience and background varies greatly upon entry to the course, and the work produced within this unit will establish common practices required to successfully commence subsequent units.  Emphasis is placed upon competences in key areas of practice including Digital and Silver based processes, Health and Safety issues and facility utilisation.

Ultimately this assignment requires the student to collect, and then collate, examples of the varied systems and processes they have been exposed to during their 1st year of study.

The student may wish to see this file (or files) as the centre-piece to their course, reflecting the dedication, effort and direction of the personal experience

Compile an evidence file (or files) containing the following:

- Details of Photographic Department rules and procedures.

- Range of equipment available.

- Health and Safety information.

- Fire and evacuation procedures.

- Library and HESC information.

- Medium and Large format use (notes, handouts, manual use)

- Roll and Sheet film processing (films, contacts, notes, data sheets)

- Black and White and test prints (contact and straight prints)

- Test strips (annotated and explained; exposure, contrast etc.)

- Digital SLR use. (notes, handouts, manual use)

- Digital contact sheets

- Digital prints (ink jet)

- Notes and Handouts detailing digital imaging process.

- Storage options

- Editing and Manipulation software awareness.

    

The evidence may be submitted in more than one file (some of it may be provided in electronic form) but it must be organised and presented to a high standard – the work will no doubt be used throughout the remainder of the course and as such must be informative, comprehensive and thorough.

Health and safety for freelance photographers 

Responsibilities
It is the duty of every employer, so far as is reasonably practicable, to ensure the health, safety and welfare at work of all his employees.

For employees to take reasonable care for their own safety and that of others.

For self employed people to conduct themselves in such a way that people not in their employ are not exposed to health and safety risks.

Locations
- The following health and safety considerations should be taken into account before, during and after assignments. The following relate to assignments on location:

- the photographer should have current employer and public liability insurance, including cover for people engaged by him on an occasional basis. Remember, these certificates should be securely archived for forty years

- the photographer and his assistant should have motor vehicle insurance which covers their vehicles for business use


- the photographer should have a formal agreement with the customer outlining their requirements

- should carry out a visit to the location to discuss arrangements with the customer, requesting where necessary, permission for access and right to take photographs

- should carry out a risk assessment particular to the areas where the photographer may wish to take photographs

-should ensure that where necessary the location has adequate fire precautions and signage in place

-should consult with the customer, where necessary, of the location on any risk assessment they may have carried out and what actions were required and have these been effectively implemented

-should share with the photographic assistant any health and safety concerns and if necessary the location management

-should ensure that all equipment is maintained and safe to use, especially flash equipment

-should ensure that all employees including those self employed are trained to use equipment safely

-should take precautions to minimise any identified potential problems related to safety affecting the assignment and to any other people at the location.

Risk Assesments

Risk assessments are very important to identify any potential hazards that may be encountered either on the photographer's premises or on location. There are several risk assessments the photographer should undertake in relation to his premises. These include:

fire precautions
using display screen equipment (DSE)
manual handling
control of substances hazardous to health (COSHH).

Fire precautions relate to having adequate types of fire extinguishers, which must be regularly serviced; displaying escape and emergency signage and ensuring escape routes are free from obstructions.

With the increased use of computers and digital equipment for manipulating images it is essential to consider the people who use display screen equipment (DSE) for long periods of time. It is very important to ensure that the computer, the workstation and the working environment meet current safety regulations, to lessen the possibility of wrist and eye strain.

Most photographers at sometime have to lift reasonably heavy and bulky equipment, such as flash lighting. A risk assessment will highlight the potential damage to the human torso, which may result in long-term absence from work. Manual handling training can help people to store equipment at correct heights and how to lift objects. Also, a risk assessment can indicate where mechanical aids such as trolleys can be of help.

With the advent of digital imaging in the industry, chemicals for processing and printing (wet processing) are not so widely used. There are however certain products used which are hazardous, for example, batteries and printer ink cartridges, along with industrial cleaning substances. These should all be listed as required by COSHH on a risk assessment.
Electrical safety is also very important. All electrical equipment such as flash equipment, kettles, microwaves etc. should be tested (usually referred to as portable appliance testing) at specified intervals. The electrical wiring installation of the photographer's premises also requires testing at specified intervals. A competent person should carry out all testing and records of these tests must be kept.
Location safety mainly resolves around 'trips, slips and hazards'. Each location should be assessed to ascertain hazards and where possible to control these to reduce any injury resulting from an incident, especially to any member of the public. Photographers, their employees and the self employed should work within the framework of the Health and Safety at Work Act, and where reasonably practicable, take steps to ensure the safety of themselves and others around them.

Using LightroomI use three different editing softwares at the moment , Light room ,photo-shop cs5 and Adobe bridge, still yet to experiment with Aperture. 

Studio Assessment  

On the 13th January we got given out fist studio assessment where we would be externally assessed.We were given a studio task to setup,I was given the task of setting up a floor stand (turtle stand) with an extension using a 400watt light and a reflector modifier. I was confused about the wording of the reflector as the only reflector I knew of  was the material reflectors/diffusers so I was confused, this taught me that I had to experiment more with different modifiers to ensure I am confident with using them all. Here is my feedback sheet and image that I took in the assessment.

1/25 sec  f/5.3  ISO 400 

Using a radio transmitter 

Release cable

Release cables are plugged directly into the camera's stereo jack and refer to any device that can trigger the camera's shutter without the used needing the press the shutter release button.Because of its simplicity, the release cable can be made of almost any space household part with a button.For instance,homemade release cables can be constructed from a most with a studio jack soldered on or a microphone button from a hands-free cell phone headset. Choose a device with a cod length that matches your needs.For instance, if you are planning to use your release cable for lighting photography , you should use a long cable that will permit you to get away from the storm. On the other hand,if you are planning to use the camera trigger just to help reduce camera shake, you can utilise a much shorter cable. 

Remote Trigger

Release cables are plugged directly into the camera's stereo jack and refer to any device that can trigger the camera's shutter without the user needing to press the shutter release button. Because of its simplicity, the release cable can be made of almost any spare household part with a button. For instance, homemade release cables can be constructed from a mouse with a studio jack soldered on or a microphone button from a hands-free cell phone headset. Choose a device with a cord length that matches your needs. For instance, if you are planning to use your release cable for lightning photography, you should use a long cable that will permit you to get away from the storm. On the other hand, if you are planning to use the camera trigger just to help reduce camera shake, you can utilize a much shorter cable.

Light/Sound trigger

Light and sound triggers,like remote triggers,involve plugging a receiver into the stereo jack of your camera.However, unlike remote triggers,the light or sound trigger does not have a remote control.Instead, the trigger is activated by either by a bright flash of light or a loud,sudden sound.These types of triggers are usual for high-speed photography where humans would not be fast or precise enough to press the shutter release at the right time.For instance, a light trigger can be used to open the shutter when a gun is fired.Both triggers will require some familiarity with electronic, and should not be attempted unless you are comfortable creating and programming your own electronic device. 

Read more:  DIY: Camera Trigger | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/way_5853376_diy_-camera-trigger.html#ixzz1BEUbWouI

Using a light meter

we recently had studio assessments and I was terrified about getting the light meter assessment as I had never used one before, I ended up getting one without the light meter but after the assessments I decided to learn how to use one for in the future when I would need one. Here is some research I have found to explain how to use a light meter. 

Source - http://www.ehow.com/how_2211304_use-light-meter.html

Light meters, whether used in night photography, film photography or even digital photography, can take the guesswork out of your exposures. Many automatic camera users feel that light meters are obsolete; however, automatic cameras only take an average light reading with varying results, where a light meter will read the specific light sources and subjects you are working with. And best of all, they are a snap to use.

Instructions 

1. Set your film speed on the meter itself so that it knows what exposure to read. The ISO, or film speed, determines how fast the film reacts to light. Most light meters will have a small knob or a digital button to change your film speed setting.

2.Take a general light reading for virtually any type of shot by standing near your subject, or in the direction of your subject if shooting landscapes, and point your meter in the direction of your camera's lens.

3. Meter the light falling on your black or white subject to ensure that your photographs have strong whites and strong blacks by . Hold the meter a few inches away from the subject, point towards the subject. This light meter technique is often used to shoot brides in white dresses, snow scenes, black cars and other subjects that greatly contrast from the surrounding scenery.

4. Read the results on your light meter, a numeric value that corresponds to your camera's shutter speed. Adjust the shutter speed dial at the top of your camera, or on the LED screen of your digital camera accordingly for the perfect exposure.

Colour Management 

In this session we went through the basic stages of colour management and how it works,here are the handouts we where given and the photographs which I took. 

Daylight RGB

Shade RGB

Portrait RGB

Color photography, especially color printing has always been a challenge. Photographers as renown as Ansel Adams have felt intimidated trying to produce worthy color prints of their work. Many sought refuge and remained in the safe world of B&W through out their career. The digital darkroom has given every photographer who so desires the power to print accurate, easily reproducible color prints of their images — assuming of course that they possess an understanding of human color vision.

The Nature of Light

Light is the basis of all photography. Without light, we are all left in the dark. But what is light? Light it turns out is a form of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), fluctuations of electric and magnetic fields which move through space as waves move over the surface of a pond. The electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves , infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays.

Scientists classify EMR by its wavelength, the distance between two consecutive crests of a wave. Human eyes it turns out are only sensitive to the range that is between wavelength 780 nanometers and 380 nanometers in length. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter. These are very tiny waves! This very special area is called the visible spectrum or visible light. Most color photography deals only with the visible spectrum.

Wavelength of colors in the visible spectrum

In order to see a color print or anything for that matter, we must place it under a source of illumination. There are several common effects that are used to produce this illumination.

Incandescence

Solids or liquids heated to 1000 degrees K in temperature or greater emit light. K is short for Kelvin, the absolute version of Centigrade scale. Water boils at 373 K, so 1000 K is very hot! The tungsten filament light bulb is the commonest man-made source of light on earth, it glows at about 2854 K. The sun, is a natural incandescent source whose surface is at about 5800 K.

Phosphorescence

Phosphors are substances that absorb energy and re-emit light. The phosphor coating of a common florescent tube emits visible light when excited by energy released within the tube. An electric arc between the tubes electrodes creates ultraviolet light which excites the phosphor causing it to glow.

The problem for color photographers is that not all light sources are created equal! The spectral energy of these light sources varies greatly. The color content of the light source is usually described in terms of the temperature of an incandescent emitter which produces a color spectrum closest in color to that source. The higher the temperature the bluer the light. The lower the temperature the redder the light. Tungsten light bulb illumination is very orange compared to daylight. The color characteristics of the light source are referred to as its spectral power distribution.

 

The Nature of the Object

The color we perceive an object to be is determined by which wavelengths of light are absorbed or reflected by the object. Only the reflected wavelengths reach our eye and are seen as color. The leaves of most common plants absorb red, orange, blue & violet . At the same time they reflect all the green wavelengths and are therefore seen to be green in color. These characteristics of the object are referred to as its spectral reflectance.

The Nature of the Human Eye

The human eye is the last link in the chain of color vision. The human eye has a simple two element lens. The cornea is the front or outer element and the lens is the back or inner element. The amount of light entering the eye is controlled by the iris which lies in between the two. The light passes through a clear gel called the vitreous humor and creates an inverted image on the retina at the back of the eyeball .

The retina is the light sensitive part of the eye. Its surface is coated with millions of photoreceptors. These photoreceptors sense the light and pass electrical signals indicating its presence through the optic nerve to stimulate the brain. There are two types of photoreceptors, rods and cones.

The rods are sensitive to very low levels of light but are monochromatic and cannot see color. That's why at very low light levels, humans see things in B&W.

The retina contains three types of cones. Different light sensitive pigments within each of these three types responds to different wavelengths of light. Red cones are most stimulated by light in the red-yellow spectrum. Green cones are most stimulated by light in the yellow-green spectrum. Blue cones are most stimulated by light in the blue violet spectrum. This phenomena describes the spectral sensitivity of the eye.

Spectral sensitivities of the red, green and blue cones.

To make the eye "see" any color of the spectrum it is only necessary to stimulate the three types of cones in a manner similar to the way the actual color would.

It is not necessary to actually produce the color of light! This is exactly how a CRT monitor works on a computer or TV. If you look closely at the face of your TV with a 4x loop you can see the individual RGB color phosphor stripes glowing. A color TV or computer monitor is really not a color device at all, its a RGB source of illumination. When you back off to a normal distance the eye combines the red, green and light and is fooled into seeing the whole color spectrum. Most color file formats used on computers, store the individual color data in exactly this way. For each point of light or pixel in an image a 24 bit binary number is stored describing the exact amount of red, green and blue making up the pixel.

Additive Colour

This representation of color is called the additive color system. It explains how we see objects that emit there own light. This system states that all perceivable color hues can be created by mixing different amounts of red, green and blue light. Equal amounts of red, green and blue give the sensation of white. The absence of red green and blue gives the sensation of black.

Subtractive Colour

Objects which are seen because they reflect light from another illuminant source are explained by the subtractive color system. Color prints fall in this category. The color perceived by the eye while looking at a color print depends on all three factors discussed above — the spectral power distribution of the light source, the spectral reflectance of the object and the spectral sensitivity of the eye.

In a color print, you control the spectral sensitivity of the paper at a given point when you adjust the color balance while looking at the image in Photoshop. The light source the print is viewed under is often out of your control and can be a problem. Certain pigment based inks appear to be identical under light sources of one type, say 2800K tungsten filament sources. The same inks viewed under a different light source, say 6500K daylight appear very different. This phenomena is called metamerism and is a problem for Epson 2000P owners.

When taking a photo, the spectral power distribution of the illuminant is even a bigger problem. Standard color films are either balanced for daylight or a tungsten light source. Anything in between, will require color adjustment in the digital darkroom for accurate color.

It is quite possible the artistic effects created by color shifts are highly desirable. Not many of us would want to trade the warm hues of sunset or sunrise for an accurate set of whites! Once we understand the nature of color, it is possible to control it. There are many color tools in Photoshop that allow you to do this, but that is the topic of yet another tutorial.

Introduction to camera settings  
White Balance 

If you come from the world of films, you may remember using filters to correct for incandescent or fluorescent lighting. Most people don't bother and their indoors pictures invariably come out with a yellow/orange or bluish cast. In the digital world, these correction filters are no longer necessary, replaced by a feature found in most -- even the entry-level -- digital cameras called, "White Balance."

Light Colour Temperature The reason that pictures turn out with a yellow/orange cast in incandescent (tungsten) lighting and bluish in fluorescent lighting is because light has a colour temperature. A low colour temperature shifts light toward the red; a high colour temperature shifts light toward the blue. Different light sources emit light at different colour temperatures, and thus the colour cast.

By using an orange or blue filter, we absorb the orange and blue light to correct for the "imbalance" -- the net effect is a shift in the colour temperature.

In digital photography, we can simply tell the image sensor to do that colour shift for us. But how do we know in which direction of the colour temperature to shift, and by how much?

 

Manual White Balance

 This is where the concept of "White Balance" comes in. If we can tell the camera which object in the room is white and supposed to come out white in the picture, the camera can calculate the difference between the current colour temperature of that object and the correct colour temperature of a white object. And then shift all colours by that difference. Most advanced digital cameras therefore provide the feature to manually set the white balance.

By pointing the camera at a white or gray card (angled so that it is reflecting light from the room) as a neutral reference, filling the screen completely with it, then pressing the White Balance button (or set it in the menu), the camera does its WB calculation.

 From then on, any picture taken will have its colour temperature shifted appropriately. It's quite simple, really, and you should not be afraid to try it out and see your indoors pictures improve considerably (assuming there is enough light for correct exposure). [A "neutral" gray is 18% gray and will reflect all colors equally.] Caution: - Ensure the card is not in shadows, but illuminated by the artificial light in the room - If you are bouncing light off the walls, ensure the card is reflecting the bounced light - Beware of mixing artificial lights -- in this case, you might want to use RAW and adjust in post processing for each light - Beware of fluorescent light: since fluorescent light does not contain all the spectrum of light, you may obtain unexpected results Preset White Balance To help us in those special situations without having to go through the trouble of manually setting the white balance everytime, cameras provide preset WB settings such as, Tungsten, Fluorescent, Cloudy, Sunny, etc. Using preset WB can improve on a picture, especially under indoors lighting. 

White Balance
AWB	Preset WB = Tungsten

In the above example, the picture on the left is taken with the camera set to Auto WB. The indoor lighting is by two ordinary incandescent (tungsten) bulbs from the ceiling. It's not bad, but the fan should really be white. By dialing in a preset Tungsten WB, the image gives a truer representation of the scene. 

Usually just selecting a Preset WB setting appropriate for the lighting situation is enough.

Auto White Balance
Since the days of the Kodak Brownie cameras, manufacturers have tried to automate everything for us. Hence, today's digital cameras also all sport an Auto White Balance (AWB) function. Depending on the camera brand, some AWB works better than others. On the whole, though, AWB works very well in sunny and cloudy outdoors, and fine for most indoors situations (a little orange or bluish cast does sometimes contribute to the mood of the picture anyway, e.g. the warm orange glow of a candle). Set your digital camera to AWB and take pictures under tungsten, fluorescent, and mixed lighting (i.e. tungsten or fluorescent, plus natural light coming through the window), and see if the results are OK. If they are, you can just use AWB.

 Snow  

Pictures of snow scenes typically reproduce the snow not as white but with a bluish tinge. Sometimes, the blue adds to the mood of the picture, but at other times you may want to remove the blue.

If your digital camera allows custom WB, then set the White to the snow and the blue should disappear.

 

Snow - Using Custom WB
AWB	Custom WB

If your digital camera does not allow custom WB, then post processing can be as effective. In Photoshop Elements, I used Enhance - Colour - Colour Cast... to specify the snow as being white, and the resulting image is as good as the one using custom WB. 

Snow - Color Cast in Photoshop
AWB	Color Cast in Photoshop

Special Effects Once you've selected a WB setting, just remember to reset this white balance setting when you head back outdoors into natural light, or you may end up with some strange, out of this world, colours.

In fact, by dialing in a WB setting inappropriate for the lighting situation allows us to create some special effects.

Raw File Format

 

Let's say you are taking a picture outdoors and you want to make the light warmer, perhaps creating a late evening, sunset effect. To do that, we dial in a Fluorescent WB, in effect telling the camera that the light is too cool. The camera responds by shifting every colour toward the warm, red values. Dial in a Tungsten WB, and the camera shifts all colours toward the cool, blue values. Lots of trial and error recommended here.

RAW File Format A discussion in WB would not be complete without a mention of the RAW file format available in many advanced digital cameras. When you save an image in RAW file format, you are saving it the way the image sensor sees it -- without applying any adjustments (including white balance) to it. In fact, the camera ignores any WB setting you dial in. Later, in an image editing software with the appropriate RAW plug-in, you can convert the RAW image to JPEG, and apply any colour temperature shift. Undo your change and try again, ad infinitum, in as fine an increment as you wish, until you obtain perfect colour balance. Some professional photographers always use RAW file format. Saving in RAW file format comes at a price because it takes so much longer to save a RAW image that it might not be practical in many picture taking situations. Professional dSLRs (and some prosumer models) have internal buffers that allow RAW images to be taken one after the other in quite rapid succession without having to wait for the saving of one image to be completed before you can take the next picture.

If you are taking landscapes, and it's early in the morning or late in the evening, or you are not too sure of which WB setting to use, try it in RAW.

A few digital cameras even allow you to save an image in both RAW and JPEG simultaneously, though time to write to memory card is proportionally increased. 

For most of us, Auto WB is fine and does a pretty good job in diverse situations, outdoors and indoors.

For those occasions when you are not happy with the colour cast of your picture, choose one of the preset WB settings.

If this still does not give you what you want, consider manually setting the white balance by using a white card or sheet of paper (or white T-Shirt, etc.).

And, for ultimate control over white balance, consider shooting in RAW file format, and adjust in post-processing.

Experimenting with White Balance

In the studio  

Tungsten White balance 

Flash white balance 

 

Outside the studio 

 Fluorescent white balance

Daylight white balance

Aperture 

What is aperture? 

The main purpose of a lens is to collect the available light. The aperture of the lens is the size of the lens opening. The larger the aperture, the more light allowed to reach the image sensor.Aperture is expressed as F-stop, F2.8 is the smaller the F-stop number, the larger the aperture. 

What is the difference between a large aperture and a small one?

A large aperture gives the photographer more freedom in the kind of pictures that you can take as your camera will perform better in low-light. This is because the larger lens opening allows more light to pass through to the image sensor than a smaller lens opening.This also allows you to to take photo’s using faster shutter speeds to freeze action shots, such as sports photography. Note: For every shutter speed increment you go up, you need to open up an f-stop of aperture. e.g. From 1/60 sec. to 1/250 sec. there are 2 increments, so you open up the aperture by 2 f-stops.

Using a smaller aperture allows you to slow the shutter speed down on the camera without over exposing the photo out due to too much light.  As a smaller aperture allows less light through to the image sensor the shutter speed can be decreased without the washed out effect.

Aperture and depth of field 

A large aperture will create a shallow depth of field  A small aperture will create a greater depth of field

Depth of field is the range of distance within the subject that is acceptably sharp.  The depth of field varies depending on camera type, aperture and focusing distance, although print size and viewing distance can influence our perception of it.  These images and explanations have helped me to understand depth of field more.  Although print size and viewing distance are important factors which influence how large the circle of confusion appears to our eyes, aperture and focal distance are the two main factors that determine how big the circle of confusion will be on your camera's sensor.  Larger apertures (smaller F-stop number) and closer focal distances produce a shallower depth of field.  The following depth of field test was taken with the same focus distance and a 200 mm lens (320 mm field of view on a 35 mm camera), but with various apertures:

source( http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/depth-of-field.htm)

What is ISO?

In traditional (film) photography ISO (or ASA) was the indication of how sensitive a film was to light. It was measured in numbers (you’ve probably seen them on films – 100, 200, 400, 800 etc). The lower the number the lower the sensitivity of the film and the finer the grain in the shots you’re taking.

In Digital Photography ISO measures the sensitivity of the image sensor. The same principles apply as in film photography – the lower the number the less sensitive your camera is to light and the finer the grain. 

Higher ISO settings are generally used in darker situations to get faster shutter speeds (for example an indoor sports event when you want to freeze the action in lower light) – however the cost is noisier shots. I’ll illustrate this below with two elargements of shots that I just took – the one on the left is taken at 100 ISO and the one of the right at 3200 ISO (click to enlarge to see the full effect).

 http://www.digital-photography-school.com/iso-settings#ixzz180BUMc6R

100 ISO is generally accepted as ‘normal’ and will give you lovely crisp shots (little noise/grain).

When you do override your camera and choose a specific ISO you’ll notice that it impacts the aperture and shutter speed needed for a well exposed shot. For example – if you bumped your ISO up from 100 to 400 you’ll notice that you can shoot at higher shutter speeds and/or smaller apertures.

When choosing the ISO setting I generally ask myself the following four questions:

1. Light – Is the subject well lit?
2. 
   
3. Grain – Do I want a grainy shot or one without noise?
4. 
   
5. Tripod – Am I using a tripod?
6. 
   
7. Moving Subject – Is my subject moving or stationary?
8. 
   

If there is plenty of light, I want little grain, I’m using a tripod and my subject is stationary I will generally use a pretty low ISO rating.However if it’s dark, I purposely want grain, I don’t have a tripod and/or my subject is moving I might consider increasing the ISO as it will enable me to shoot with a faster shutter speed and still expose the shot well.Of course the trade off of this increase in ISO will be noisier shots.

Situations where you might need to push ISO to higher settings include:

• Indoor Sports Events – where your subject is moving fast yet you may have limited light available.
• 
  
• Concerts – also low in light and often ‘no-flash’ zones
• 
  
• Art Galleries, Churches etc- many galleries have rules against using a flash and of course being indoors are not well lit.
• Birthday Parties – blowing out the candles in a dark room can give you a nice moody shot which would be ruined by a bright flash. Increasing the ISO can help capture the scene.
• 
  

ISO is an important aspect of digital photography to have an understanding of if you want to gain more control of your digital camera. 

(source)  http://www.digital-photography-school.com/iso-settings#ixzz180BtwGcK

Shutter Speed 

1. What is shutter speed?

Let’s begin with a basic definition of shutter speed. Now, the shutter in a digital camera is a thin sheet covering the CCD (think of the CCD as ‘film’). When this shutter opens, it exposes light from the exterior onto the CCD, hence allow a picture to be taken. The length of time that the shutter remains open is termed the shutter speed.

A key concept here – the longer the shutter remains open (i.e. the lower the shutter speed), the greater the amount of light that is allowed into the camera. And vice versa, the faster the shutter closes (i.e. the higher the shutter speed), the smaller the amount of light that is allowed into the camera.

2. How is shutter speed expressed?

If you look at modern digital cameras, shutter speeds are usually expressed as 1/8th of a second. The range of shutter speeds can be expressed as: 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/15, 1/30, 1/60, 1/125, 1/250, with each one being a fraction of a second. Each speed in this series is roughly half that of the one on the left.

3. Choosing the Correct Shutter Speed

Here’s the important question. How do you select the correct shutter speed when taking photos? Well, if you have a point-and-shoot camera, then it may not matter too much. Simply set the camera to automatic mode and snap the picture. The camera’s in-built auto exposure settings will take care of the shutter speed settings for you.

If, however, you like to play with manual settings and have a more advanced camera, then the choice of shutter speed clearly matters. What you need to remember is this – shutter speeds are very closely linked to movement.

Use a slow shutter speed (say 1/60 or lower) if you want to introduce some blur in the picture to display speed in the subject. Remember, however, that a slow shutter speed will mean you need to hold the camera totally still for a longer period of time. If you can’t do this, your image will usually turn out bad. To work around the problem, use a tripod or steady your arms somewhere before taking the shot. As a general rule, if the shutter speed is 1/30 or slower, I’ll definitely  use my tripod to steady the camera.

Use a fast shutter speed (say 1/125 or higher) if you need to capture a fast moving subject. Good examples include a passing car or a bird in flight. Now, one problem with fast shutter speeds is that you can totally miss the shot because the shutter opens and closes so fast. To workaround this, you can try one of two things. First, avoid the camera LCD - look through the viewfinder with one eye and use the other eye to spot the subject crossing the camera’s field of view. Second, you can try uses a lens that increases the field of view, allowing you more time to take the picture. source - http://www.basic-digital-photography.com/fundamentals-of-camera-shutter-speed.html

Camera metering and Exposure 

A photograph's exposure determines how light or dark an image will appear when it's been captured by your camera. Believe it or not, this is determined by just three camera settings: aperture, ISO and shutter speed (the "exposure triangle"). Mastering their use is an essential part of developing an intuition for photography.

Achieving the correct exposure is a lot like collecting rain in a bucket. While the rate of rainfall is uncontrollable, three factors remain under your control: the bucket's width, the duration you leave it in the rain, and the quantity of rain you want to collect. You just need to ensure you don't collect too little ("underexposed"), but that you also don't collect too much ("overexposed"). The key is that there's many different combinations of width, time and quantity that will achieve this. For example, for the same quantity of water, you can get away with less time in the rain if you pick a bucket that's really wide. Alternatively, for the same duration left in the rain, a really narrow bucket can be used as long as you plan on getting by with less water.

In photography, the exposure settings of aperture, shutter speed and ISO speed are analogous to the width, time and quantity discussed above. Furthermore, just as the rate of rainfall was beyond your control above, so too is natural light for a photographer.

Exposure triangle:aperture,ISO and shutter speed

Each setting controls exposure differently:

Aperture: controls the area over which light can enter your cameraShutter speed: controls the duration of the exposureISO speed: controls the sensitivity of your camera's sensor to a given amount of light

One can therefore use many combinations of the above three settings to achieve the same exposure. The key, however, is knowing which trade-offs to make, since each setting also influences other image properties. For example, aperture affects depth of field, shutter speed affects motion blur and ISO speed affects image noise.

The next few sections will describe how each setting is specified, what it looks like, and how a given camera exposure mode affects their combination.

File Formats - online research  

There seems to be a lot of confusion among some new digital camera owners about exactly what the difference is between RAW, JPEG and TIFF files. This article is intended to be a very basic guide to these file types and how they are related in a typical digital camera.

First some basics

The digital sensor in the majority of digital cameras is what is known as a BAYER PATTERN sensor. This relates to the arrangement of red, green and blue sensitive areas. A typical sensor looks like this:

Each pixel in the sensor responds to either red, green or blue light and there are 2 green sensitive pixels for each red and blue pixel. There are more green pixels because the eye is more sensitive to green, so the green channel is the most important. The sensor measures the intensity of light falling on it. The green pixels measure the green light, the red the red and the blue the blue. The readout form the sensor is of the form color:intensity for each individual pixel, where color can be red, green or blue and intensity runs from 0 to 4095 (for a 12-bit sensor)

A conventional digital image has pixels which can be red, green, blue of any one of millions of other colors, so to generate such an image from the data output by the sensor, a significant amount of signal processing is required. This processing is called Bayer interpolation because it must interpolate (i.e. calculate) what the color of each pixel should be. The color and intensity of each pixel is calculated based on the relative strengths of the red, green and blue channel data from all the neighboring pixels. Each pixel in the converted image now has three parameters: red:intensity, blue:intensity and green:intensity. In the end the calculated image looks something like this:

RAW data

RAW data (which Nikon call NEF data) is the output from each of the original red, green and blue sensitive pixels of the image sensor, after being read out of the array by the array electronics and passing through an analog to digital converter. The readout electronics collect and amplify the sensor data and it's at this point that "ISO" (relative sensor speed) is set. If readout is done with little amplification, that corresponds to a low ISO (say ISO 100), while if the data is read out with a lot of amplification, that corresponds to a high ISO setting (say ISO 3200). As far as I know, RAW isn't an acronym, it doesn't stand for anything, it just means raw, unprocessed, data.

Now one of two things can be done with the RAW data. It can be stored on the memory card, or it can be further processed to yield a JPEG image. The diagram below shows the processes involved:

If the data is stored as a JPEG file, it goes through the Bayer interpolation, is modified by in camera set parameters such as white balance, saturation, sharpness, contrast etc, is subject to JPEG compression and then stored. The advantage of saving JPEG data is that the file size is smaller and the file can be directly read by many programs or even sent directly to a printer. The disadvantage is that there is a quality loss, the amount of loss depending on how much compression is used. The more compression, the smaller the file but the lower the image quality. Lightly compressed JPEG files can save a significant amount of space and lose very little quality. 

RAW to JPEG or TIFF conversion

If you save the RAW data, you can then convert it to a viewable JPEG or TIFF file at a later time on a PC. The process is shown in the diagram below:

 

When to shoot RAW, when to shoot JPEG?

The main reason to shoot JPEG is that you get more shots on a memory card and it's faster, both in camera and afterwards. If you shoot RAW files you have to then convert them to TIFF or JPEG on a PC before you can view or print them. If you have hundreds of images, this can take some time. If you know you have the correct exposure and white balance as well as the optimum camera set parameters, then a high quality JPEG will give you a print just as good as one from a converted RAW file, so you may as well shoot JPEG.

You shoot RAW when you expect to have to do some post exposure processing. If you're not sure about exposure or white balance, or if you want to maintain the maximum possible allowable post exposure processing, then you'll want to shoot RAW files, convert to 16-bit TIFF, do all your processing, then convert to 8-bit files for printing. You lose nothing by shooting RAW except for time and the number of images you can fit on a memory card.

Using the dark room 

As I have never worked in the dark room before I decided to go in with someone with had done to try out what is called a photogram , a photogram is  An image produced without a camera by placing an object on photosensitive paper and exposing it to light. I decided to use my pandora bracelet and my mini Lacey umbrella as I though the lace textures would come out on the photogram but unfortunately it didn't so second time round I tried it again on my own and just used my pandora charm bracelet, Here is a step by step guide to creating a photogram. 

step 1 - start by setting the enlarger  to shed an area of light that is slightly larger than the size of your 8 x 10 piece of photo paper. 

Step 2 - next place your photographic paper shiny side up under the enlarger where the light will shine up .  

Step 3 - Arrange your objects on the paper in any order  

Step 4 - turn on your enlarger and expose the paper for 5 seconds 

Step 5 - finally carefully remove your items and you are ready to develop your photogram  Step 6 - place you photographic paper in the developer for about 20 seconds  

Step 7 - Next carefully place the paper in the stop bath for around a minute  Step 8 - finally place your photogram in the stop bath for around 4 minutes and then place it   on a drying rack and wait for it to dry  

Here are my photograms  

Equipment and how its used

I have researched different types of equipment used in and out of a studio such as lenses, lights and modifiers etc and have looked at what they are used for and what they change in your photograph.  

Lenses 

Although some will take landscape shots with telephoto lenses, most photographers opt for the wide-angle lens. Because a wide-angle lens has a wider field of vision than the human eye, it can take in more of a topographical expanse. Consequently, the wide-angle lens is one of the preferred landscape camera lenses. Wide Angle Lense A wide-angle lens can focus on the foreground and background simultaneously, another ability that the human eye lacks. Wide-angle camera lenses are best for large, dynamic landscapes where background and foreground both catch the eye’s attention. However, a photographer should refrain from using a wide-angle lens if he wants to focus in on the details of a single, distinct subject.

Nikon Zoom Super Wide Angle AF 12-24mm f/4G ED-IF DX AF-S Autofocus Lens

Zoom Lens 
A zoom lens allows the photographer to widen or shorten the lens’ focal length to increase or decrease the magnification of the subject. This feature makes the zoom lens a popular camera accessory in many types of photography, ranging from landscape to portrait photography. However, because zoom lenses have small apertures (or lens openings), they are not well suited to taking pictures in low-light conditions.

Zoom lenses have replaced the fixed focal length camera lens in most camera models, especially with the advent of digital cameras. When choosing camera lenses, bear in mind that an optical zoom lens and a digital zoom lens are different.

While an optical zoom lens magnifies the image, a digital zoom lens crops the image after the maximum zoom is reached. Essentially a digital zoom enlarges and crops the image seen in the viewfinder instead of magnifying the subject. This digital enlargement results in lower resolution and, therefore, a poorer quality image.

When choosing camera lenses with zoom capabilities, photographers should look for high optical zoom capabilities rather than being deceived by claims about digital zoom capability. Pictures are of much better quality with an optical zoom lens.

Nikon 24-85mm f2.8-4D AF Zoom-Nikkor lens

Telephoto Lens
The difference between a zoom lens and a telephoto lens is subtle. A zoom lens enlarges and magnifies the image. In contrast, a telephoto lens brings the subject “closer” to the photographer, reducing the distance between objects in the photograph and the camera’s lens. This allows a telephoto lens to show greater detail than the human eye could see at the same distance.

Nikon Zoom Super Wide Angle-Telephoto AF Zoom Nikkor 18-200mm f/3.5-5.6G ED-IF AF-S DX VR II Autofocus Lens

 

Fixed-Focal Length Camera Lens

A fixed-focal length camera lens is a permanent, non-adjustable lens found on some low to mid-range quality cameras. Often (but not always) doubling as a wide-angle lens, fixed-focal lenses tend to work well for low-light photos.

A fixed-focal length lens can do wonders for beginning photographers by helping them learn the art of photography. Without zoom capabilities, the photographer must give more thought to basic photography composition to produce good quality shots. Consequently, a budding photographer may learn the basics of good photography faster if by choosing a fixed-focal length lens.

Fixed-focal length camera lenses are less common than they once were, in part because most mid-range digital cameras now have built-in zoom lenses.

The Macro Lens A macro lens is used to take extreme close ups of objects. Its short focal length allows the photographer to take pictures at close distances without distortions. The resulting image is as large as, or larger, than the original subject.

Choosing a macro lens has been complicated by digital camera settings. Originally, a macro lens was an extension tube for the camera lens. However, today’s digital cameras often have a macro setting. Although the setting replaces the traditional lens, it still produces the same effect as the previous macro lenses.

Macro lenses or macro settings are best used for magnifying the details of already small objects. For example, a photographer can use his macro setting to photograph ripples in water, the dew on a flower petal or the crevices of a rock.

Nikon Normal Macro 60mm f/2.8D AF Micro Nikkor Autofocus Lens

 

Fisheye Lens Fisheye camera lenses distort the subject image, producing photos with curved and convex appearances. The fisheye lens was first developed for astronomy photography that seeks to capture as wide a range of sky as possible.

Today, the fisheye lens has become popular with landscape photographers, as the lens distortion curves horizons and hints at the earth’s curve. A portrait of a person taken with a fisheye lens has the distortion similar to what’s seen when looking through a door’s peephole. Nikon 10.5mm f/2.8 DX Fisheye 

Front of Lens Accessories Choosing among different camera lenses isn’t an issue for most mid-range cameras because they already have built-in lenses that cannot be changed. While single lens reflex (SLR) cameras have interchangeable lenses, their steeper prices tend to make them a tool for professionals or serious amateur photographers.

For the hobbyist who doesn’t have an SLR camera, front of lens accessories that mimic the effects of certain lenses are available. A front of lens accessory is a disc that clips onto the front of a camera lens to provide specific effects. While some front of lens accessories filter out light, others mimic the effect of a wide-angle or fisheye lens.

Photos taken with a lens clip on accessory lack the quality of those taken with camera lenses designed for the same effect. As choosing a lens is not possible with many cameras, front of lens accessories increase the average photographer’s options.


Lense Baby  

Lensbaby manufactures a line of camera lenses that combine a simple lens with a bellows or ball and socket mechanism for use in special-effect photography, allowing modern cameras to obtain effects associated with view cameras. Lensbaby lenses can be used on cameras that accept interchangeable lenses, mainly of the 35 mm or digital SLR formats. The focal length of the Lensbaby is approximately 50 mm, making it a normal lens in 35 mm format.

MUSE - Perfect for fast and loose, artistic photography. Since the Muse does not lock into place, you will get a different shot every time with sometimes surprising results.

CONTROL FREAK - Ideal for tabletop and macro photography. Bend the lens in any direction, lock it in place and then fine tune your tilt precisely. The extra controls require a step-by-step approach.

SCOUT - Our only unbending lens is perfect for fun Fisheye photography because your image will always be centered. It's easy to use and can be a great place to start your journey of creative discovery.

COMPOSER - Our most versatile lens. Composer is popular among professionals who love the unlimited bending freedom, full functionality and added control of a locking ring. 

Studio Induction

for the studio lighting workshop i brought in a perfume bottle for my 'object' as i felt it would be interesting lighting glass with all the shadows you can create, i also used jess's ipod and found that the object wasnt as interesting to light as you would either get a flat image with no shadow or just a streek of light (shadow) through the middle. heres a few images i took.

Here are some of the viewpoints I tried to use:

we changed where the light was and moved it so it was underneath the perfume bottle , we also added a pink filter to create a 'perfume advert' effect : 

this image showed too much shadow and created this effect,

it takes over the image and changes the whole dainty feminine appeal 

and makes it a darker image 

this was the overall effect of the pink filter , i think it works well with the object 

and creates nice shadows

here are some of the ipod photographs that i took , again i tried different viewpioints to see how it changed the image and its shadows. we started off with two lights and then removed one to create to different effects , these are the images with two lights :

there are no shadows on either image

here are the images with just one light, look at how they are different 

the light gives the image a cold effect, with strong shadows behind and underneath the object , 

rather than it being a flat image of an ipod. 

Studio equipment 

Lighting, light stands and other 

Bowens Heavy duty stand - 

This ultra-durable light support stand easily withstands the demands of a busy studio, with a maximum height of 13' (390cm), the stand closes down to 45" (115cm) for portability.

Bowens Backlight stand -

The backlight stand is the smallest of the Bowens light stands, allowing you to place your lights very nearly on the floor, at just 7cm from the ground, or up to a maximum height of 85cm.Constructed from black anodised aluminium for a sturdy, attractive and non-reflective appearance Bowens stands feature high-quality aluminium locking clasps, rather than plastic to ensure ultimate stability and maximum safety.

Bowens 400w Light 

Modifiers  

Barn doors - a modifier for the flash heads  which spread the light around the room , you can add different colored gels which can add different effects , i used a pink colored gel to try and create a feminine look for the perfume. 

Honeycomb modifier-

Polyboards- big polystyrene boards , one which is colored black to absorb light and the other is white to reflect the light. 

Soft box- a modifier which creates a soft even light 

Snoot -A conical tube that fits over a studio light that gives you more control over the light beam and forms a small circular patch on the subject. Often used as a hair light on portrait photography

Reflector -Similar to a domestic lampshade, these reflectors are fixed to an artificial light source (for example, a-filament bulb or flash tube) to direct and shape the otherwise scattered light, reflecting it off their concave inner surfaces and directing it towards the scene to be photographed. Although there are a large number of variants.

background reflector 

Umbrellas - Incorporating the use of an umbrella is the means by which most photographers begin their endeavor into studio lighting as they are inexpensive and easy to use. They create a nice wrap around effect producing evenly lit subjects.

Beauty Dish -A beauty dish is a type of photographic lighting device, one of a number of photographic soft light devices. A beauty dish uses a parabolic reflector to distribute light towards a focal point. The light created is between that of a direct flash and a soft-box, hence giving the image a wrapped, contrasted look, which adds a very dramatic effect.

Studio Lighting - glossary of terms

source- http://www.studiolighting.net/studio-lighting-glossary-of-terms/

Ambient Light/Available Light:

Ambient, or available light refers to the light that already is present in the location where you plan to shoot. This light could be sunlight or indoor overhead lighting. Typically, when using studio flash units, the ambient light will be overpowered by the direct flash. However, it is important to factor in any ambient light in your flash meter readings to insure a proper exposure. 

BCPS (Beam CandlePower/Seconds):

Beam Candlepower Seconds is the measure of effective intensity of a light source when it is focused into a b

eam by a reflector or lens. Beam Candlepower Seconds is the effective intensity for a period of one second.

Bounce Lighting:

Bounced light is an indirect light source, where the actual light is pointed away from that which you wish to illuminate, and bounced off of a reflective surface back towards your subject. This can be achieved in flash photography with reflector panels, umbrellas, and even reflective surfaces such as a wall or ceiling. Bounced light is used when you desire a softer, less harsh light quality than is produced with direct lighting.

Bracketing:

When shooting, bracketing is taking several photographs of the exact same scene and setup with different exposure settings both above and below the target setting indicated by the flashmeter. As different brands of flashmeters vary in their readings for a “correct” exposure, bracketing both above and below the indicated settings will ensure that you get a properly exposed picture. If, for example, the indicated exposure for a setup is f5.6 with a shutter speed of 1/60 second, you can bracket for one stop less at f8, and one stop more at f4.

Color Balance/Color Temperature (see also Kelvin):

The Color Temperature refers to the color of a light source, measured in Kelvin. The Color Balance refers to the relationship between the color of light and the film.

Contrast:

The contrast is the degree of difference between the dark and the light areas of a scene or photograph. High contrast photographs are a result of high contrast lighting, where there are sharp differences in the dark and light, and less in between. High contrast lighting can be achieved with both direct and bounced light that is not softened or diffused, but often reflected from a bright silver surface.

Depth of Field:

The depth of field refers to the nearest and farthest points in your photograph that are in focus in your shot. A lens can only focus on one single distance fully, but with a wide depth of field, areas both closer and further from that one point are relatively in focus as well. Stopping down to a smaller aperture increases the depth of field, and will result in more of the photograph being in focus. 

Diffused Light:

Diffused light is softened light, with less shadows and more even coverage. A diffused light source is most commonly achieved by directing light through a translucent material, such as a diffusion shoot-through umbrella, a softbox, or a diffusion reflector panel.

Effective Wattseconds:

This terminology was originally used in 1985 by Inverse Square Systems in conjunction with their "Stroblox" series of high-efficiency self-contained flash units. The term was created because most manufacturers of flash equipment (as well as the press) insisted on the incorrect use of the term "wattsecond" as a definition of light output (in such wrong statements as "This system puts out 800ws of light"). Since the Stroblox system produced on the order of twice the amount of light per wattsecond as did the average "box-and-cable" system at the time, Inverse Square Systems chose to employ the rating "2400 effective wattseconds" as a means of saying "our system puts out an amount of light equal to the average 2400ws system,” even though the actual stored energy of the Stroblox 2400 was only 1200 joules or wattseconds. Indeed, this terminology gave the user a more clear idea of what to expect from the unit than he would have gotten had they simply stated that it was a 1200ws system. We publish wattseconds, effective wattseconds, and Lumenseconds for our flash units, with Lumenseconds being the most valuable method of power comparison.

Fill Light:

In a lighting setup, the fill light refers to the light source which is used to “fill-in” the shadows cast by the main light. This source can be a flash unit, or simply a reflector that is directed on the subject to illuminate the shadowed areas and lessen the contrast.

Filter/Gel:

A filter or gel for a flash unit is a thin piece of tinted or colored gelatin placed directly over the light source to alter the quality of the light’s output. Gels will physically change the color of the light, whereas filters will modify its quality. We offer color gels, warming filters, diffusion filters, UV filters, and neutral density filters.

Flash Duration (t.1, t.3, t.5):

When a flash system fires, although it may appear so to humans, the light emitted does not come on and go off instantaneously. In reality, the flash tube 'turns on' very quickly and then dims gradually as the flash capacitors discharge. Short flash durations are important to prevent blurring when the subject is in rapid motion such as a pirouetting ballerina or a Michael Jordan slam-dunk. Flash manufacturers do not rate flash duration as the entire time the flash tube is emitting light however, because the end of the slowly dimming 'tail' does not contribute much to the overall exposure (or to blur). t.1 is defined as the time during which the flash lamp output is above 0.1 (or 1/10) it's peak intensity. t.3 you may guess is the time the output is greater than 0.3 (about 1/3) peak, and t.5 is how long its above 0.5 (half) the peak value.

F-stop:

An f-stop is a designation to indicate a camera’s aperture opening, and a flash unit’s power level. Our flash units are measured in power over a range of available f-stops, indicating the high or low power level setting of the unit. Each f-stop (shown on the back panel of our flash units) lets in twice as much light as the f-stop before it, and half as much light as the f-stop after it. Over a 5 f-stop range, the power is adjustable from Full down to 1/32 of the total power. For f-stops in relation to your camera’s lens opening, see aperture.

Guide Number:

The Guide Number is another way of stating BCPS. The Guide number tells you what aperture setting you will need on the camera for a given light to subject distance at a given film speed. For example, if you are using an ISO 100 film, you would use the ISO 100 GN and divide this number by the distance from light to subject to find the correct lens aperture. If, for example, the ISO 100 GN for your flash were 110, and your subject were 10 feet from the flash, you would use an f11 aperture. By looking at an appropriate chart, you could also find that an ISO 100 GN of 110 is simply another way of stating a rating of 2800 BCPS. Like the BCPS rating, the Guide Number only has relevance when the flash is used direct.

Highlight/Hot Spot:

Highlights or hot spots are very bright, well-lit and often overly lit areas in your setup, causing a very dense, dark spot on your negative. Hot spots appear when one area of your scene is overly lit, and can be avoided by diffusing or lowering the output of light on that area.

Hot Shoe:

A hot shoe is a u-shaped mounting point, usually found on the top of 35mm SLR cameras. This feature provides a slide-in mounting of small, battery operated flash units. In addition, it provides an electrical circuit connection which fires the flash when the shutter is tripped. If your camera does not have the necessary PC connection to wire our flash unit sync cord, you can purchase a hot shoe adapter piece, which fits in your hot shoe, and allows the sync cord to be plugged into your camera.

IEC Standard Connector:

An IEC is a standard connector system for removable power cords on electronic equipment. These power cords are found on just about all computer equipment and are also widely used in electronic test equipment. This connector system is used on Ultra flash systems.

ISO:

An ISO number rating refers to the speed of the chosen film. A lower ISO film, such as 100 speed film, will require more light. A higher ISO film, such as 400 speed film, will require less light, but produce grainier negatives. The higher the ISO, the less light required. Typically, lower speed films are used for portraits, whereas higher speed films are used in lower light settings or in sports photography where one wishes to stop action.

Joules:

Joules are a measurement of output, rated the same as true wattseconds. See wattseconds.

Kelvin (K):

The Kelvin is a unit of temperature measurement starting from absolute zero at -273 Celsius. Degrees Kelvin (or color temperature) is used in color photography to indicate the color balance or spectrum of light emitted from a light source. If you were to heat a chunk of iron to 3000º Kelvin, the light emitted from the iron (a dull red glow) would be said to have a color temperature of 3000K for the purposes of color photography. Sunlight measures about 5500K and film balanced for sunlight (daylight film), will assure 'true' color rendition for objects reflecting the sun. Photographic, or Xenon, flash creates a light source with a color temperature of about 6000K. AlienBee flash units come with a standard flash tube which measures 5600K, and is daylight-balanced for film. We also offer optional UV-coated tubes, rated at 5200K.

Lens Flare/Light Spill:

With ambient and studio lighting, when light is directed or refracted into the camera's lens, this light is known as lens flare. Some photographers will allow light to be reflected in their camera's lens for an intended glowing effect, but normally light spill is undesired. When using studio lighting to illuminate your subject, you can eliminate light spill by position your flash unit and accessories to not direct light back into your camera.

Lumen second:

A Lumen is a unit of measurement of light intensity falling on a surface. A Lumensecond refers to a light of 1 Lumen intensity for a duration of one second, or the equivalent, such as 2 Lumens for half a second. The absolute amount of light emitted each time a flash system is fired is correctly specified in lumenseconds. The number of lumen seconds produced by a particular flash system depends on the efficacy, how effectively the system turns electrical energy into light energy, or wattseconds into lumenseconds. The efficacies of commercial photoflash systems typically fall within the range of from 15 to 50 lumenseconds per wattsecond. What this implies is quite simple: a highly efficient 300ws system may produce as much actual light energy as an inefficient system rated at 1000ws.

Main Light:

The main light in a lighting setup is the primary light used. This primary light source is typically the brightest in your setup, casting the most prominent shadows.

Manual Exposure:

Manual exposure is a camera mode which is non-automatic, and requires the photographer to set their own aperture and f-stop for each shot. This mode does not rely on the camera’ s internal metering system, but requires you rather to take a reading with a separate flashmeter to determine correct settings. When using external flash units, your camera should be adjusted manually.

Monolight:

The terms ‘monolight’ and ‘flash unit’ are often used interchangeably. A monolight is self-contained flash system, that incorporates the power supply and flash head in one package. This term is used to distinguish these systems from 'power pack' systems where the power supply and flash head are separate and are connected using a heavy duty, custom cable. Monolights draw their power directly from standard wall outlets.

Proportional Modeling System:

The modeling system aids the photographer in the composition of a shot by providing a continuously burning light source that imitates (models) the flash illumination. In order to be defined as proportional, the modeling light must imitate the flash in two important respects. First, it must provide the same pattern with various modifiers (reflectors, softboxes, barndoors). Secondly, it must accurately track the flashpower in order to show lighting ratios when two or more lights are used in a setup.

Recycle:

When you fire your flash unit, it releases all of the energy stored in its flash capacitors in order to emit the flash of light. Before you can fire the unit again, the capacitors must have time to recycle, or build up enough energy in the capacitors in order to fire again. AlienBee flash units boast extremely fast recycle times, which are lessened as you decrease the flashpower. On the X-Series X800 unit, for example, the unit may be used at full power and will recycle in under 1 second! Fast recycle times are important for rapid shooting, as you can take shot after shot without pausing to wait for your flash unit to keep up.

Shutter Speed:

Shutter speed is a term which refers to the length of time your camera’s shutter is open. As the shutter opens and closes to expose your film, the shutter speed measures in seconds the length that light is reaching your film. Obviously, the longer the shutter speed, the more light you are letting in. Very fast shutter speeds will allow you to stop action, but require a great deal of light.

Slave:

A flash unit is said to be a slave flash when it is set up to fire by detecting the flash from another (master) flash unit in a multi-light setup. This allows multiple light setups to be operated with only one light synchronized (wired) to the camera. As many slaves as necessary can be used in a set-up. All studio flash units from Paul C. Buff Inc. have highly sensitive built-in slaves which can be disabled if desired.

Sync:

The sync connection in a flash system connects to the camera body, either to a PC connector or through the hot shoe. This circuit is used by the camera to fire the flash at the precise moment that the shutter has fully opened and before it begins to close to successfully capture the full light burst from a flash set-up.

Through-The-Lens Meter (TTL):

A TTL meter is a light/exposure meter which is built into your camera, and takes light readings through the lens to determine the correct settings when in automatic mode. Often, this meter sends out a pre-flash or infrared sensor in order to detect the amount of available light. This signal may inadvertently trip your unit’s built-in slave tripper, and therefore can not be used with flash units.

Watt seconds (Joules):

A wattsecond is a measure of electrical energy used in flash systems to indicate the amount of energy in the flash capacitors. Since this is only a measure of electrical energy, and does not take into account considerations such as flashtube efficacy, or flash capacitor/flashtube energy transfer efficiency, it is not necessarily a good number to comparatively assess light output. See also effective wattseconds and Lumen seconds.

CD cover design 

For today brief we had to think of our favourite song and try to take a photograph which would be used to design a cd cover for that particular song , I initially struggled with this task as I had thought of too many songs , eventually i came up with the song: Photosynthesis by the artist Frank Turner . 

This is the original CD cover for the song, which is basically a clip from the video. I wanted to steer away from this and wanted to try something more simplistic which had more symbolic meaning towards the song. 

The first idea that came into my head was to use some kind of clock to use within the image, so i decided to take a look around the bargain shops on the high street, I found a timer which was in the style of an old fashioned alarm clock , I thought this was perfect . I wanted to show that the song was about growing up, as it is , and how his life is one big timer and eventually it will go off and it will end. Here is the photograph of the clock I used.

As well as having the clock within the photograph I wanted to include the idea of photosynthesis, by adding some sort of natural plant, so I walked around Blackburn and photographed the clock in different natural landscapes, such as on the grass, near leaves, and on tree branches, I think the most effective was the tree branch. Here is the contact sheet of the entire photo shoot to give you an idea of the sort of photographs I took. 

After taking a series of photographs I decided that my most favourite and suitable photographs for the song i choose where the photographs with the branches. Here is the photograph that I choose to develop for my final design. 

I choose this photograph because I felt although it fit the brief and showed the meaning of the song clearly but doesn't overcomplicate it. The depth of field on the image is effective and takes the viewers eye away from the background and makes you focus more on the clock/timer on the trees branch.

I also like how the background is out of focus because of the pattern it creates. I developed and edited the image on photoshop CS5 , I only wanted to edit it slightly as I feel as though the meaning would be taken away if I changed it too much. 

I started by cropping the image to fit the Cd size I then resized the image to 12cm by 12cm which looked like this: 

1.

2.

I then decided to change the colour of the image to make it fit the whole theme of plants and photosynthesis, so i changed the colour and make it into a sepia tone. I destaturated the image then changed the colour by using the colour balance tool. To make the colours come out stronger I used auto tone. 

3.

4.

5.

This is the look that i wanted for the cover of my chosen song, next i had to add the text to complete my design. I decided to choose a text which was similar to the text on Frank Turners other albums, I resized the text to fit the image.  

6.

This is my final image , I am pleased with the final outcome but could possible think about changing the colour of the texts so its clearer the see but other than that I am happy with the image and feel as though it shows what i wanted the image to show about the song and the artist. 

Symmetrical face -20/10/10

we were set this brief on the wednesday by andy, we had to get into pairs and take face on portraits of one another in different locations such as the studio or outdoors. I was paired with sarah and we decided to go outside and take some shots in different natural light. I also wanted to use the studio to see what the different locations and lighting would do to the image and change the mood of it. As the studio was full we decided to take a trip down to the fire exit stair case which Andy told us had really good lighting, I struggled at first when trying to change my camera settings to fit the lighting but i feel that i have learnt a lot more about aperture and shutter-speed and how it works.

Once I had taken the photographs on the staircase i uploaded my chosen photograph from the staircase to photoshop to brighten to image.

 I then used the marque tool to select half of the image 

I then selected the feather tool and selected the feather radius to 44 pixels

Then I went onto edit - transform - flip horizontal

After that I copied the image and made it into one single layer

I enjoyed this excersize and feel it has helped me to understand how to use photoshop more quicker and easier , as you can see I  have screen shots of how I edited and flipped the images I felt that this would help me in the future to look back and be able to do it again